The science of consciousness

Wednesday, April 26, 2023

The Nerve Net, the First Step in the Nervous System's Evolution

Comb jelly internal representation The nerve net is marked purple. Two kinds of nerve cells — sensory cells (light blue) and mesoglea neurons (yellow) exist outside the nerve net. Image credit: PAWEL BURKHARDT AND MAIKE KITTELMANN

Animals use active processes to obtain nutrients for their biological needs. Movement is supported by the nervous system, made up of individual neurons. The nervous system transmits signals between the sensory and motor system, allowing the ability to sense, move, breathe, and feed. The transmission of signals occurs via tiny gaps between neurons, where chemical or electrical signals transfer nerve impulses in one way. The electrical synapse is a cell association between two nerve cells where ions are used to transmit nerve impulses rapidly. In the latter case, neurons release chemicals that must travel across this gap to stimulate the post-synaptic receptors.

Recent work has shown that Comb jellies have a cobweb of neurons rather than synapses, with a unique, fused structure pictured above. These ancient animals are called comb jellies because they swim using rows of beating, hairlike combs. Comb jellies fused nerve net represent long, stringy neurons sharing a cell membrane. Comb jellies or ctenophores are similar to jellyfish. Still, the enigmatic phylum is one of the earliest, perhaps the most ancient animal group, to branch off the animal tree of life.

Reference article:

P. Burkhardt et al. Syncytial nerve net in a ctenophore adds insights into the evolution of nervous systems. Science. Vol. 380, April 21, 2023, p. 293. Doi: 10.1126/science.ade5645.

Tuesday, April 25, 2023

Therapeutic use of Psychedelics for depression

The use of psychedelics, such as LSD and psilocybin, has a long history of being associated with counterculture and pursuing transcendent experiences. However, there has been a growing recognition of these substances' therapeutic potential, particularly in treating mental health conditions such as depression and PTSD. Specifically, psychedelic drugs' potential for treatment-resistant depression therapy occurs through receptors that promote new brain cell connections.

While psychedelics provide mystical and even profound experiences, most of those experiences are not drastically different but involve observing the world around us in a new and different way. Recognizing the extraordinary in the ordinary is a form of wisdom that can help us find meaning in the seemingly insignificant moments of our everyday lives and cultivate gratitude and contentment. Transcendence and enlightenment can be achieved by recognizing the potential for profound insight and understanding are present in every moment. True wisdom can be found in the most commonplace experiences without mind-altering substance use.

Therefore, a better understanding of psychedelics' mechanism of action could lead to related therapeutic potential without hallucinogenic effects. Moreover, appreciating everyday moments can help us have happier and more meaningful lives without the help of psychedelics.

Tuesday, April 11, 2023

How could science be different?

A government-administered grant system provides the lion's share of funds for scientific research. In the grant system, the government pays for the study, salaries, supply and equipment costs, travel, and publishing. Indirect costs cover building maintenance, depreciation, and library materials. The generous grant system increased the number of scientists and created an independent research culture. It also spurred an unprecedented scientific renaissance in the twentieth century with significant discoveries in practically every field. In addition, the fierce competition to analyze a particular subject in greater detail led to discoveries in many fields, e.g., molecular biology, DNA structure, and the Standard model in physics. Even today, new information continually emerges about the inner workings of biological systems, gene editing, and the structure of the states of matter.

Nevertheless, recent findings suggest that top researchers are increasingly unhappy with the status quo. Rather than an objective measure of quality or scientific merit, grant awards are often a contest of craftsmanship, where investigators write research proposals designed to please grant review committees. There is a hidden drive toward safe science, as proposals with predictable outcomes are more likely to receive funding. Funding uncertainties also channel academic careers toward "popular" research areas.

Therefore, financial support is a double-edged sword. As it gave rise to a robust scientific community, it created a conservative scientific hierarchy. Anchoring professional careers to accepted beliefs turns people antagonistic to meaningful change. Therefore, top researchers need to be more satisfied with the grant writing process and the subjectivity of evaluation. On the other hand, the future of science depends on scientists' ability to bring science into public conversation. Because taxpayers fund the grant system, the public should have the opportunity to see the results of their tax money. Therefore, institutions accepting various public funds should host regular Open University events. An Open University event presents scientific progress in a conference format, enabling scientists and the public to familiarize themselves and engage in current research. This program should ease the persistent skepticism of science and the tendency for conspiracy theories. For example, Open University events could have made the public more favorable to the vaccine rollout during the Covid 19.

To read the rest of the essay you need to download it on QSpace.

Click on the link: https://qspace.fqxi.org/competitions/entry/2271

Monday, March 27, 2023

Can memory prostheses boost memory?

Brain electrodes can help understand the electrical activity patterns when memories are encoded and then use those same electrodes to fire similar activity patterns in the hippocampus—a seahorse-shaped region deep in the brain that plays a crucial role in memory. Memory prosthesis is an electrode inserted deep into the brain to help people with memory disorders—and it is most effective in people with poor memory.

In a healthy hippocampus, electrical activity flows from one layer to another before spreading to other brain regions. A decoding memory model (MDM) mimics patterns of electrical activity across the hippocampus that occur naturally when we successfully form memories. The MDM model takes an average of these patterns across each individual and then fires off this pattern of electrical stimulation. A multi-input, multi-output model more closely mimics how the hippocampus works by learning the electrical inputs and outputs corresponding to memory encoding and then mimicking them.

The memory prosthesis improved the volunteers' performances significantly on memory tests—if they had received the correct pattern of stimulation when first presented with the images. The prosthesis improved brain memory encoding by 11% to 54%. The most significant improvements occur in people with the worst memory performance at the start of the experiment.

The electrodes used in the study are around a millimeter wide, and all the volunteers had them implanted deep enough into the brain to reach the hippocampus—around 10 centimeters deep. The hippocampus patterns associated with successfully stored memories are unique and different for each person. Therefore, customizing stimulation to individual brains by mirroring the hippocampus working will likely require brain electrodes with hundreds of contact points, allowing them to record from and stimulate hundreds or thousands of neurons.

Although the prosthesis is still in some way from clinical use, more advanced versions could help people with memory loss due to brain injuries or aging or degenerative diseases like Alzheimer's.

Read the whole article on the memory prosthesis.c

Wednesday, March 15, 2023

Can new seawater processing provide green hydrogen?

Hydrogen has high energy density and burns cleanly into water, which makes it a promising renewable resource. A new study published in the journal Science uses seawater electrolysis to produce sustainable hydrogen. Electrolysis involves passing an electric current through water, splitting water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. However, the process requires a lot of energy, making it expensive for large-scale production. In addition, seawater electrolysis can produce dangerous chlorine gas. Nevertheless, the study suggests that renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power, could provide power for an economic electrolysis process.

Seawater is an ideal source for hydrogen production because it is abundant and contains dissolved salt, which can improve the efficiency of the electrolysis process. Seawater electrolysis could produce up to 1,000 times more hydrogen than freshwater electrolysis, making it a desirable option for green hydrogen production. As a result, green hydrogen could provide an endless source of clean energy. In addition, hydrogen fuel cells can store renewable energy, such as wind and solar power, for use when these sources are unavailable.

Nevertheless, with improvements in the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of electrolysis, seawater electrolysis can be a sustainable green hydrogen source. While there are still some challenges to overcome, the potential benefits of green hydrogen are significant for a cleaner, more sustainable world for future generations.

Read the Science article: "Splitting seawater could provide an endless source of green hydrogen."

Tuesday, January 3, 2023

Potential for Vagus Nerve Stimulation in Medical Treatments

The vagus nerve is the longest and most complex of the 12 cranial nerves. It transmits information to or from the brain's surface to tissues and organs elsewhere in the body. It is responsible for regulating internal organ functions, such as digestion, heart rate, and respiratory rate, as well as vasomotor activity and reflex actions, such as coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and vomiting.

An abnormal vagal tone with minimal heart rate variability has been associated with conditions such as diabetes, heart failure, and high blood pressure. Conversely, the ideal vagal manner may represent a high variability between heartbeats.

In the early 2000s, researchers started to show that vagus nerve stimulation could help some patients who were severely depressed and had not responded to other treatments. By 2005, the Food and Drug Administration had approved implantable pulse-generating devices that sent electrical signals to the vagus nerve for use in patients with treatment-resistant depression.

Similar devices have also been supported for obesity — to help control feelings of hunger and fullness. In addition, internal vagus nerve stimulation to treat inflammation may also have applications for psychiatric disorders such as PTSD. Other conditions improved by stimulating the vagus nerve include epilepsy, diabetes, and inflammatory autoimmune conditions such as Crohn's disease or rheumatoid arthritis.

Home remedies that improve vagus tome include holding the breath and submerging the face in cold water. The process can trigger the "diving reflex," a response that slows the heartbeat and constricts blood vessels. Some people who have tried it report that it has a calming effect and can even reduce insomnia. Others wrap an ice pack in a cloth and place it on their chest to relieve anxiety.

Image credit: Manu5, via Wikimedia Commons

Read the article: This nerve influences nearly every internal organ. Can it improve our mental state, too?

Male and Female Stem Cells Derived from One Donor for the first time

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can develop into any type of tissue in the body. As a result, they have the potential to be used in a variety of medical treatments, including regenerative medicine, in which damaged or diseased tissue is replaced with healthy cells. In a groundbreaking discovery in stem cell research, scientists, for the first time, successfully derived both male and female stem cells from the same donor.

The ability to derive both male and female stem cells from the same donor could have significant implications for personalized medicine, in which treatments are tailored to an individual's specific genetic makeup. In the past, researchers have been limited to using stem cells from a single gender, which can impact the effectiveness of treatments. However, with the ability to derive both male and female stem cells from the same donor, researchers can now create treatments that are more tailored to the specific needs of an individual patient.

Read the source article: Male and Female Stem Cells Derived from One Donor in Scientific First.